# Universals ## Intro Take two red apples. They share something: their redness. Two triangles share triangularity. Two humans share humanity. These shared somethings (redness, triangularity, humanity, justice, goodness) are called *universals*. The problem is whether they actually exist out there in any real sense, or whether they are just names we give to similar things. There are three main answers. **Platonic Realism.** Universals exist in their own realm. The Form of Triangle exists whether or not any concrete triangle does. Plato held this; modern mathematical Platonists are close cousins. **Aristotelian and Thomist Moderate Realism.** Universals exist in three modes: in God's mind before creation as eternal exemplars, in concrete things as their real shared nature, and in human minds as concepts abstracted from experience. Aquinas runs this view. It is the mainstream Christian metaphysics. **Nominalism.** Universals do not exist. Only individual particular things exist; "redness" is just a name (Latin *nomen*) we give to a bunch of things that happen to be similar. William of Ockham developed this in the late Middle Ages; modern materialism inherits it. Why does this dry-sounding fight matter? Because Christianity is structurally Realist all the way down. The doctrine that all humans bear the image of God assumes humanity is a real shared nature, not just a label. The doctrine of natural law assumes moral truths are real features of how things are, not human conventions. The doctrine that Christ took on human nature, full stop, requires that there be such a thing as human nature to take on. Nominalism cannot deliver any of these. This is why arguments like the [Stealing from God Argument](/codex/stealing-from-god-argument/) (Frank Turek) press hard on universals. A worldview that denies that universals are real cannot consistently make universal moral claims, do universal mathematics, or talk about real shared human nature. It is borrowing capital it cannot account for. ## In full The problem of universals, whether abstract properties (justice, redness, humanity, triangularity) exist independently of their instances, is foundational metaphysical infrastructure for classical theism. The three-position trichotomy (Platonic Realism, Aristotelian-Thomist Moderate Realism, Nominalism) underpins at least seven major Christian doctrines and supplies the metaphysical grounding the [Stealing from God Argument](/codex/stealing-from-god-argument/) presupposes. Realism about universals is not optional decoration on the Christian system; it is load-bearing. ## The three-position trichotomy ### Platonic Realism (universals *ante rem* only) Universals exist independently in a separate realm of Forms, prior to and independent of the particulars that instantiate them. The Form of Triangle exists whether or not any concrete triangles do. [Plato](/codex/plato/)'s classical position; revived in modified forms by some contemporary mathematical Platonists. **Strengths:** explains the objectivity, necessity, and intelligibility of universals; underwrites mathematical realism cleanly. **Weaknesses:** the "third man" regress (if the Form of Man explains what men share, what explains what men and the Form share?); difficulty connecting the Form-realm to the world of particulars; the regress threatens to multiply Forms infinitely. ### Aristotelian-Thomist Moderate Realism (universals *ante rem*, *in re*, and *post rem*) Universals exist in three modes: - ***Ante rem***, in the divine intellect, prior to creation, as the eternal exemplars by which God knows His own essence and creatable possibilities. Aquinas treats divine ideas as God's knowledge of the ways His own essence can be participated in (cf. *ST* I.15). - ***In re***, in concrete particulars, instantiated in the things themselves. The form of humanity exists in Peter, in Paul, in every human, as a real shared nature. - ***Post rem***, in the human mind, abstracted by the intellect from sensible particulars. We come to know universals by abstraction from instances. This is the historically dominant Christian view, articulated by [Aristotle](/codex/aristotle/), refined by [Augustine](/codex/augustine/) and [Boethius](/codex/boethius/), and given its mature form by Aquinas. It avoids the third-man regress (the divine intellect grounds universals without itself being one more universal in need of grounding) and avoids nominalism's deflation (because universals really are *in* the things, not merely names projected onto them). ### Nominalism (universals are mere names or mental constructs) Only particulars exist. "Humanity," "redness," "triangularity" are at most labels we apply to groupings of particulars that resemble one another, or mental constructs with no mind-independent existence. William of Ockham's via moderna; revived heavily in modernity (Hobbes, Berkeley in some moods, Quine, Goodman, contemporary trope theorists with caveats). **Strengths:** ontological parsimony; aligns with empiricist epistemology. **Weaknesses:** struggles to account for genuine commonality between particulars (why are all triangles triangular if "triangle" is just a label?); cannot ground necessary truths (mathematics, logic); typically presupposes the very universals it denies (concepts of "resemblance," "set," "predicate"). ## Seven theological applications The problem of universals is not idle metaphysics. At least seven major Christian doctrines stand or fall on the realist answer. ### 1. Mathematics grounding If mathematical objects (numbers, sets, geometrical relations) have no real existence, if "two" is just a label, then the [unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics](/codex/argument-from-mathematical-truth/) in describing physical reality has no explanation. Theistic moderate realism grounds mathematics in the divine intellect; nominalism owes an account. ### 2. Moral realism Objective moral facts ("torturing infants for fun is wrong, in every place and every age") presuppose universal moral truths. The natural intuition, torture-for-fun is wrong simpliciter, not just wrong-here-now-for-me, is the realist position. Nominalism about moral universals is a *revisionary* commitment that owes a justification, not the obvious starting point. The [Moral Argument](/codex/moral-arguments/) presupposes moral universals. ### 3. Trinity coherence "One essence, three Persons" requires that the divine essence is a *real* universal, really shared by Father, Son, and Spirit, not merely a label applied to three separate beings (which would be tritheism). The classical incoherence objection ("how can God be both one and three?") conflates the metaphysical categories to which "one" and "three" apply. The [Trinity](/codex/trinity/) doctrine and its [Latin-Thomist coherence defense](/codex/trinity-coherence-defense-latin-thomist/) require realism. ### 4. Hypostatic union The doctrine that Christ is one Person in two natures (fully God and fully human) presupposes that "divine nature" and "human nature" are real universals capable of being instantiated in a single Person. The [Hypostatic Union](/codex/hypostatic-union/) is unintelligible under nominalism, there are no real natures for the one Person to instantiate. ### 5. Original sin and federal headship Adam's sin imputed to all humanity ([Rom 5:12-21](/codex/romans-5-12-21/)) presupposes that "humanity" names a real nature shared by Adam and his descendants, not just a convenient grouping. [Federal Headship](/codex/romans-5-12-21/) and [Original Sin](/codex/original-sin/) both depend on the universal being real; if nominalism is true, federal headship collapses into arbitrary divine decree with no metaphysical anchor. ### 6. Natural law The doctrine that there are universal moral obligations binding on all human beings as such (not just on those who have explicitly received special revelation) presupposes that "human nature" is a real universal with normative content. *Natural Law* is a moderate-realist tradition; pure nominalism cannot ground it. ### 7. The Stealing from God argument The atheist who affirms objective moral truths, the laws of logic, and the applicability of mathematics to reality is implicitly relying on the existence of universals. Universals require grounding, and the moderate-realist answer (grounded in the divine intellect) is the historically dominant and philosophically robust option. The [Stealing from God Argument](/codex/stealing-from-god-argument/) runs through universals. ## The Aristotelian-Thomist resolution The Moderate Realist position resolves the main objections against both Platonism and Nominalism. **Against Platonism's third-man regress.** Anchoring *ante rem* universals in the divine intellect, rather than in a free-floating, self-subsistent Form-realm, eliminates the regress. God's knowledge of His own essence grounds the universals without generating a further universal in need of grounding. The divine intellect terminates the regress because divine simplicity entails that God's intellect, His being, and His essence are not really distinct (cf. [Divine Simplicity](/codex/divine-simplicity/)). **Against Nominalism's deflation.** Positing real shared natures *in re*, really instantiated in particulars, gives a substantive answer to "why are all triangles triangular." It is not a name-projection; the triangularity is *really there*, the same in each triangle. The universal is not a separate object floating somewhere; it is the form *of* the particular thing. **Against modern revisions.** Trope theory (universals as bundles of resembling tropes) and resemblance nominalism (similarity is primitive) both face the regress problem differently. To explain why particulars resemble, one must appeal to a respect of resemblance, which is itself a universal property. The Aristotelian framework absorbs trope-theory's intuition (forms-in-things) without paying its ontological price (denying the unity of the form across instances). ## The strongest case against theistic realism (steel-man) Christianity's position is realism (universals are real, grounded *ante rem* in the divine intellect). Debate hygiene means knowing the best case *against* one's own view. Here is the nominalist argument at full strength, including the objections aimed specifically at the theistic-realist (divine-conceptualist) version, with the realist reply noted. **The nominalist syllogism:** - **P1.** Posit no entity beyond what is needed to explain the phenomena (parsimony). - **P2.** Everything realism explains by universals, the agreement of many things in being F, can be explained by particulars alone (each thing's own nature or trope) plus resemblance and predication. - **C.** Therefore universals are explanatorily idle and should not be posited. **The load-bearing objections:** 1. **Bradley's regress (instantiation).** Realism says particular *a* has universal *F-ness*. What ties *a* to *F-ness*? An instantiation relation *I*. What ties *a*, *F-ness*, and *I*? A further relation. Regress. The "having" of a universal by a particular is left unintelligible. *Realist reply:* treat instantiation as a non-relational tie or a primitive fundamental fact (Armstrong), terminating the regress; the divine-intellect grounding already refuses to make the universal one more object needing a further tie. 2. **The location problem.** A universal must be *wholly present* in each of its many instances at once, one entity multiply located. Nothing else behaves so; the oddity exists only to do the One-Over-Many job. *Realist reply:* the *in re* form is not a separately located object but the form *of* the thing; "multiple location" misdescribes a constituent, not a free object. 3. **The aseity / sovereignty objection (the Ockhamist blade).** If universals are necessary beings God must conform to or "consult," there is a realm of reality God did not create, compromising divine [Aseity](/codex/aseity/). Either universals are created (then contingent, and cannot ground necessary truths) or uncreated necessary beings alongside God (then God is not the sole ultimate). This is the theological motive that drove Ockham to nominalism. *Realist reply:* the dilemma is false; on the divine-conceptualist view universals are neither independent beings nor creatures but the *contents of God's own necessary thinking*, internal to God's nature, so aseity is preserved (Augustine's exemplars, modern theistic conceptual realism). See [Divine Simplicity](/codex/divine-simplicity/). 4. **The bootstrapping objection (Bergmann-Brower).** If properties are divine concepts, then God's own attributes (omniscience, goodness) are divine concepts; but God must already *have* omniscience to conceive it, so the account is circular for the divine perfections. *Realist reply:* via divine simplicity and constituent ontology, God's attributes are identical to the divine essence rather than concepts God forms, blocking the circle. 5. **Conceptualism collapses into a particular.** If "redness" is an idea in God's mind, it is a particular mental item, a trope in a mind, not a genuine mind-independent universal, so theistic "realism" concedes the nominalist's core point. *Realist reply:* the divine ideas are not psychological tokens but the necessary structure of the divine essence's imitability; they are universal in scope precisely because they are God's knowledge of the many ways His essence can be participated. **What the case does and does not cost.** Even at full strength this threatens a *natural-theology argument* (the inference from real universals to a divine mind), not Christianity as such, since a serious Christian (Ockham) was a nominalist. But it cuts against the seven doctrinal applications above: a thoroughgoing nominalism strains Trinity, hypostatic union, federal headship, and natural law, which is why the mainstream tradition pays the realist price and answers the objections rather than going nominalist. The honest verdict: the anti-realist objections are real and force the theist toward the *conceptualist* refinement (universals as the contents of a necessary mind), not toward abandoning realism. ## Apologetic deployment The equivocation-defeater pattern (cf. [Engaging the Conclusion-Fixed Skeptic](/codex/engaging-the-conclusion-fixed-skeptic/)) and the [Stealing from God Argument](/codex/stealing-from-god-argument/) pattern both run through universals. **The borrowed-capital move.** Atheist objections that appeal to objective morality, the unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics, the intelligibility of science, or the laws of logic have already conceded a metaphysical inventory the atheist's nominalism cannot pay for. The classical theist points out that the universals being relied on require grounding, and the historically dominant grounding answer is theistic (the divine intellect). The atheist either retracts the appeal (and accepts the deflationary cost, moral relativism, mathematical fictionalism, conventionalist logic) or accepts the metaphysical infrastructure that points to theism. **The nominalism-burden move.** Nominalism is not the natural starting point against which realism must be argued. The natural intuition, that triangles really share triangularity, that murder is really wrong, is the realist intuition. The nominalist is the one proposing a revisionary metaphysics; the burden of proof is on the revision, not on the default. ## Wigner's problem Eugene Wigner's "The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences" (1960) remains the standing challenge for mathematical nominalism. If mathematical objects are mere fictions or arbitrary mental constructs, why does mathematics, and especially mathematics developed for purely abstract purposes long before any physical application was foreseen, describe physical reality with extraordinary precision? The realist has a clean answer: mathematics tracks the structure of reality because the structure of reality is itself mathematical (the laws of nature are the mathematical structure built into things), and that mathematical structure is itself grounded in the divine intellect that is its eternal exemplar. The Wigner phenomenon is exactly what the realist would predict. The nominalist owes an account that does not reduce to "remarkable coincidence." Quine's later position (mathematics is indispensable to our best scientific theories, so we ought to be ontologically committed to mathematical objects) is itself a partial concession to realism. ## Historical sweep - **Plato** (4th c. BC), Forms in a separate realm; the original realist position. - **Aristotle** (4th c. BC), Forms in things; the *in re* mode; the seed of Moderate Realism. - **Augustine** (4th-5th c.), Forms relocated into the divine intellect; the Christian-theistic *ante rem* mode. - **Boethius** (6th c.), preserved the universals problem for the medieval Latin tradition; his commentary on Porphyry framed the medieval debate. - **[Anselm](/codex/anselm/), Abelard** (11th-12th c.), early medieval moderate realism; Abelard's "non-thing universals" foreshadows nominalist moves. - **Aquinas** (13th c.), the mature Moderate Realism; ante-in-post rem framework; divine ideas doctrine in *ST* I.15. - **Scotus** (13th-14th c.), moderate realist with a distinctive doctrine of common nature and *haecceitas*. - **Ockham** (14th c.), the via moderna's nominalism; universals are mental concepts, not extra-mental. - **Suárez** (16th-17th c.), late-scholastic synthesis; influences modern theistic personalism. - **Modern era**, Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley (variously nominalist or conceptualist); Hegel, McTaggart (idealist universals); Russell, Frege, Quine (the analytic recovery of realism for mathematical purposes); Armstrong, Lewis, Sider (contemporary universalist debates). ## See also - [Stealing from God Argument](/codex/stealing-from-god-argument/), the borrowed-capital pattern runs through universals - [Anyone Who Affirms Universals Must Affirm God](/codex/anyone-who-affirms-universals-must-affirm-god/), the standalone deductive argument from the reality of universals to a divine mind (theistic conceptual realism) - [Classical Theism](/codex/classical-theism/), universals doctrine is part of the classical-theist package - [Divine Simplicity](/codex/divine-simplicity/), divine intellect grounds *ante rem* universals; divine simplicity terminates the regress - [Trinity](/codex/trinity/), coherence depends on shared-nature realism - [Trinity Coherence Defense (Latin-Thomist)](/codex/trinity-coherence-defense-latin-thomist/), explicit deployment of the universals framework - [Hypostatic Union](/codex/hypostatic-union/), two natures presupposes real natures - [Federal Headship](/codex/romans-5-12-21/), corporate-humanity logic presupposes a real human nature - [Original Sin](/codex/original-sin/), depends on federal-headship logic - *Natural Law*, a moderate-realist ethical tradition - [Moral Argument](/codex/moral-arguments/), moral realism presupposes moral universals - [Argument from Mathematical Truth](/codex/argument-from-mathematical-truth/), Wigner-Plantinga theistic Platonism - [Engaging the Conclusion-Fixed Skeptic](/codex/engaging-the-conclusion-fixed-skeptic/), borrowed-capital pattern; equivocation-defeater
## Common questions this page answers **Q: What are universals in philosophy?** Universals are abstract properties or kinds (redness, triangularity, humanity, justice, goodness) that multiple particular things can share. Two red apples share redness; two triangles share triangularity. The problem of universals is whether these shared somethings really exist out there, or whether they are just names we give to similar things. **Q: What are the main positions on universals?** Three classical positions. *Platonic Realism*: universals exist in their own realm, the Form of Triangle exists whether any concrete triangle does. *Aristotelian-Thomist Moderate Realism*: universals exist in three modes, in God's mind as eternal exemplars, in concrete things as real shared natures, and in human minds as concepts abstracted from experience. *Nominalism*: universals do not exist; only individual particulars exist; "redness" is just a name (Latin *nomen*) we give to a bunch of similar things. **Q: Why does this matter for Christianity?** Christianity is structurally realist all the way down. The doctrine that all humans bear the *imago Dei* assumes humanity is a real shared nature. Natural law assumes moral truths are real features of how things are, not conventions. The Incarnation requires that there be such a thing as human nature for Christ to take on. [Original Sin](/codex/original-sin/) depends on federal-headship logic that presupposes humanity as a shared reality. Nominalism cannot deliver any of these. **Q: How does the universals question relate to the Stealing from God argument?** [Frank Turek](/codex/frank-turek/)'s [Stealing from God Argument](/codex/stealing-from-god-argument/) presses on universals as borrowed capital. A worldview (typically [Naturalism](/codex/naturalism/) paired with nominalism) that denies universals are real cannot consistently make universal moral claims ("torturing infants for fun is wrong" *universally*), do universal mathematics, or talk about real shared human nature. The naturalist uses these as if they were real while denying the metaphysics that grounds them. **Q: What is mathematical Platonism?** The view that mathematical objects (numbers, sets, functions) are real abstract entities that exist independently of the human mind. Gödel and many working mathematicians have held versions of this. It is a contemporary cousin of Platonic Realism about universals. Theistic versions (Plantinga, Pruss) ground the abstract mathematical realm in God's mind, dissolving the question of where abstract objects "live" if there is no immaterial mind to host them. See [Argument from Mathematical Truth](/codex/argument-from-mathematical-truth/).