# Romans 9.30-10.13 **Book:** [Romans](/codex/romans/) · NASB95 ## Immediate context (±2 verses) **ASV** ([ASV](/codex/asv/)) > 28. for the Lord will execute his word upon the earth, finishing it and cutting it short. 29. And, as Isaiah hath said before, Except the Lord of Sabaoth had left us a seed, We had become as Sodom, and had been made like unto Gomorrah. > > **30. What shall we say then? That the Gentiles, who followed not after righteousness, attained to righteousness, even the righteousness which is of faith: 31. but Israel, following after a law of righteousness, did not arrive at that law. 32. Wherefore? Because they sought it not by faith, but as it were by works. They stumbled at the stone of stumbling; 33. even as it is written, Behold, I lay in Zion a stone of stumbling and a rock of offence: And he that believeth on him shall not be put to shame. 10:1. Brethren, my heart's desire and my supplication to God is for them, that they may be saved. 10:2. For I bear them witness that they have a zeal for God, but not according to knowledge. 10:3. For being ignorant of God's righteousness, and seeking to establish their own, they did not subject themselves to the righteousness of God. 10:4. For Christ is the end of the law unto righteousness to every one that believeth. 10:5. For Moses writeth that the man that doeth the righteousness which is of the law shall live thereby. 10:6. But the righteousness which is of faith saith thus, Say not in thy heart, Who shall ascend into heaven? (that is, to bring Christ down:) 10:7. or, Who shall descend into the abyss? (That is, to bring Christ up from the dead.) 10:8. But what saith it? The word is nigh thee, in thy mouth, and in thy heart: that is, the word of faith, which we preach: 10:9. because if thou shalt confess with thy mouth Jesus as Lord, and shalt believe in thy heart that God raised him from the dead, thou shalt be saved: 10:10. for with the heart man believeth unto righteousness; and with the mouth confession is made unto salvation. 10:11. For the scripture saith, Whosoever believeth on him shall not be put to shame. 10:12. For there is no distinction between Jew and Greek: for the same Lord is Lord of all, and is rich unto all that call upon him: 10:13. for, Whosoever shall call upon the name of the Lord shall be saved.** > > 10:14. How then shall they call on him in whom they have not believed? and how shall they believe in him whom they have not heard? and how shall they hear without a preacher? 10:15. and how shall they preach, except they be sent? even as it is written, How beautiful are the feet of them that bring glad tidings of good things! (Romans 9:28-10:15, ASV) **WEB** ([WEB](/codex/web/)) > 28. for He will finish the work and cut it short in righteousness, because the LORD will make a short work upon the earth.” 29. As Isaiah has said before, “Unless the Lord of Armies had left us a seed, we would have become like Sodom, and would have been made like Gomorrah.” > > **30. What shall we say then? That the Gentiles, who didn’t follow after righteousness, attained to righteousness, even the righteousness which is of faith; 31. but Israel, following after a law of righteousness, didn’t arrive at the law of righteousness. 32. Why? Because they didn’t seek it by faith, but as it were by works of the law. They stumbled over the stumbling stone; 33. even as it is written, “Behold, I lay in Zion a stumbling stone and a rock of offense; and no one who believes in him will be disappointed.” 10:1. Brothers, my heart’s desire and my prayer to God is for Israel, that they may be saved. 10:2. For I testify about them that they have a zeal for God, but not according to knowledge. 10:3. For being ignorant of God’s righteousness, and seeking to establish their own righteousness, they didn’t subject themselves to the righteousness of God. 10:4. For Christ is the fulfillment of the law for righteousness to everyone who believes. 10:5. For Moses writes about the righteousness of the law, “The one who does them will live by them.” 10:6. But the righteousness which is of faith says this, “Don’t say in your heart, ‘Who will ascend into heaven?’ (that is, to bring Christ down); 10:7. or, ‘Who will descend into the abyss?’ (that is, to bring Christ up from the dead.)” 10:8. But what does it say? “The word is near you, in your mouth, and in your heart”; that is, the word of faith, which we preach: 10:9. that if you will confess with your mouth that Jesus is Lord, and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved. 10:10. For with the heart, one believes unto righteousness; and with the mouth confession is made unto salvation. 10:11. For the Scripture says, “Whoever believes in him will not be disappointed.” 10:12. For there is no distinction between Jew and Greek; for the same Lord is Lord of all, and is rich to all who call on him. 10:13. For, “Whoever will call on the name of the Lord will be saved.”** > > 10:14. How then will they call on him in whom they have not believed? How will they believe in him whom they have not heard? How will they hear without a preacher? 10:15. And how will they preach unless they are sent? As it is written: “How beautiful are the feet of those who preach the Good News of peace, who bring glad tidings of good things!” (Romans 9:28-10:15, WEB) **KJV** ([KJV](/codex/kjv/)) > 28. For he will finish the work, and cut it short in righteousness: because a short work will the Lord make upon the earth. the work: or, the account 29. And as Esaias said before, Except the Lord of Sabaoth had left us a seed, we had been as Sodoma, and been made like unto Gomorrha. > > **30. What shall we say then? That the Gentiles, which followed not after righteousness, have attained to righteousness, even the righteousness which is of faith. 31. But Israel, which followed after the law of righteousness, hath not attained to the law of righteousness. 32. Wherefore? Because they sought it not by faith, but as it were by the works of the law. For they stumbled at that stumblingstone; 33. As it is written, Behold, I lay in Sion a stumblingstone and rock of offence: and whosoever believeth on him shall not be ashamed. ashamed: or confounded 10:1. Brethren, my heart's desire and prayer to God for Israel is, that they might be saved. 10:2. For I bear them record that they have a zeal of God, but not according to knowledge. 10:3. For they being ignorant of God's righteousness, and going about to establish their own righteousness, have not submitted themselves unto the righteousness of God. 10:4. For Christ is the end of the law for righteousness to every one that believeth. 10:5. For Moses describeth the righteousness which is of the law, That the man which doeth those things shall live by them. 10:6. But the righteousness which is of faith speaketh on this wise, Say not in thine heart, Who shall ascend into heaven? (that is, to bring Christ down from above:) 10:7. Or, Who shall descend into the deep? (that is, to bring up Christ again from the dead.) 10:8. But what saith it? The word is nigh thee, even in thy mouth, and in thy heart: that is, the word of faith, which we preach; 10:9. That if thou shalt confess with thy mouth the Lord Jesus, and shalt believe in thine heart that God hath raised him from the dead, thou shalt be saved. 10:10. For with the heart man believeth unto righteousness; and with the mouth confession is made unto salvation. 10:11. For the scripture saith, Whosoever believeth on him shall not be ashamed. 10:12. For there is no difference between the Jew and the Greek: for the same Lord over all is rich unto all that call upon him. 10:13. For whosoever shall call upon the name of the Lord shall be saved.** > > 10:14. How then shall they call on him in whom they have not believed? and how shall they believe in him of whom they have not heard? and how shall they hear without a preacher? 10:15. And how shall they preach, except they be sent? as it is written, How beautiful are the feet of them that preach the gospel of peace, and bring glad tidings of good things! (Romans 9:28-10:15, KJV) **YLT** ([YLT](/codex/ylt/)) > 28. for a matter He is finishing, and is cutting short in righteousness, because a matter cut short will the Lord do upon the land. 29. and according as Isaiah saith before, 'Except the Lord of Sabaoth did leave to us a seed, as Sodom we had become, and as Gomorrah we had been made like.' > > **30. What, then, shall we say? that nations who are not pursuing righteousness did attain to righteousness, and righteousness that [is] of faith, 31. and Israel, pursuing a law of righteousness, at a law of righteousness did not arrive; 32. wherefore? because, not by faith, but as by works of law; for they did stumble at the stone of stumbling, 33. according as it hath been written, 'Lo, I place in Sion a stone of stumbling and a rock of offence; and every one who is believing thereon shall not be ashamed.' 10:1. Brethren, the pleasure indeed of my heart, and my supplication that [is] to God for Israel, is, for salvation; 10:2. for I bear them testimony that they have a zeal of God, but not according to knowledge, 10:3. for not knowing the righteousness of God, and their own righteousness seeking to establish, to the righteousness of God they did not submit. 10:4. For Christ is an end of law for righteousness to every one who is believing, 10:5. for Moses doth describe the righteousness that [is] of the law, that, 'The man who did them shall live in them,' 10:6. and the righteousness of faith doth thus speak: 'Thou mayest not say in thine heart, Who shall go up to the heaven,' that is, Christ to bring down? 10:7. or, 'Who shall go down to the abyss,' that is, Christ out of the dead to bring up. 10:8. But what doth it say? 'Nigh thee is the saying, in thy mouth, and in thy heart:' that is, the saying of the faith, that we preach; 10:9. that if thou mayest confess with thy mouth the Lord Jesus, and mayest believe in thy heart that God did raise him out of the dead, thou shalt be saved, 10:10. for with the heart doth [one] believe to righteousness, and with the mouth is confession made to salvation; 10:11. for the Writing saith, 'Every one who is believing on him shall not be ashamed,' 10:12. for there is no difference between Jew and Greek, for the same Lord of all [is] rich to all those calling upon Him, 10:13. for every one, whoever shall call upon the name of the Lord, he shall be saved.'** > > 10:14. How then shall they call upon [him] in whom they did not believe? and how shall they believe [on him] of whom they did not hear? and how shall they hear apart from one preaching? 10:15. and how shall they preach, if they may not be sent? according as it hath been written, 'How beautiful the feet of those proclaiming good tidings of peace, of those proclaiming good tidings of the good things!' (Romans 9:28-10:15, YLT) ## Setting - **Speaker:** _TBD_ - **Audience:** _TBD_ - **Location:** _TBD_ - **Time period:** _TBD_ ## Theological reading _Patristic / early-church-father exegesis, to be added._ ## Key words _Theologically-loaded Greek or Hebrew words in this verse may have entries in the lexicon. Curated to roughly 100 contested terms across the corpus, not every word._ - _TBD_ - _TBD_ - _TBD_ - _TBD_ ## Quoted in **Arguments and defeaters:** - [Allah Predestines Child to Hell Objection Defeater](/codex/allah-predestines-child-to-hell-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/), [Romans 9.15-16](/codex/romans-9-15-16/) - [Anointing Implies Subordination Objection Defeater](/codex/anointing-implies-subordination-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 9.5](/codex/romans-9-5/) - [Argument from Conscience](/codex/argument-from-conscience/), via [Romans 9.1](/codex/romans-9-1/) - [Argument from Transformed Lives](/codex/argument-from-transformed-lives/), via [Romans 9.14-18](/codex/romans-9-14-18/) - [Belief-Choice Objection Defeater](/codex/belief-choice-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/) - [Cumulative Case for the Deity of Christ](/codex/cumulative-case-for-the-deity-of-christ/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/) - [Deuteronomy 28-68 Slave Trade Prophecy Objection Defeater](/codex/deuteronomy-28-68-slave-trade-prophecy-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/) - [Evil God Objection Defeater](/codex/evil-god-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/) - [Gentiles Cannot Be Saved Objection Defeater](/codex/gentiles-cannot-be-saved-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/) - [God Created Me Knowing I Would Reject Him Objection Defeater](/codex/god-created-me-knowing-i-would-reject-him-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/), [Romans 9.20](/codex/romans-9-20/) - [Hardening Pharaohs Heart Objection Defeater](/codex/hardening-pharaohs-heart-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/), [Romans 9.14-23](/codex/romans-9-14-23/), [Romans 9.18](/codex/romans-9-18/), [Romans 9.21](/codex/romans-9-21/) - [Jesus Has a God Therefore Not God Objection Defeater](/codex/jesus-has-a-god-therefore-not-god-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 9.5](/codex/romans-9-5/) - [Jews Do Not Need Jesus Objection Defeater](/codex/jews-do-not-need-jesus-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 9.1-3](/codex/romans-9-1-3/), [Romans 9.1-5](/codex/romans-9-1-5/), [Romans 9.3](/codex/romans-9-3/), [Romans 9.4](/codex/romans-9-4/) - [Khazar Hypothesis Ashkenazi Replacement Objection Defeater](/codex/khazar-hypothesis-ashkenazi-replacement-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/), [Romans 9.1-5](/codex/romans-9-1-5/), [Romans 9.3](/codex/romans-9-3/), [Romans 9.6-8](/codex/romans-9-6-8/) - [Mosaic Law Binding for True Israelites Objection Defeater](/codex/mosaic-law-binding-for-true-israelites-objection-defeater/) - [Nietzsche Concedes Problem of Evil](/codex/nietzsche-concedes-problem-of-evil/), via [Romans 9.1-29](/codex/romans-9-1-29/) - [Numbers 31 Midianite War Objection Defeater](/codex/numbers-31-midianite-war-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 9.20-21](/codex/romans-9-20-21/) - [Problem of Evil, Free Will Defense](/codex/problem-of-evil-free-will-defense/), via [Romans 9.14-24](/codex/romans-9-14-24/) - [Sodom and Gomorrah Objection Defeater](/codex/sodom-and-gomorrah-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 9.29](/codex/romans-9-29/) - [Trinity Invented at Nicaea Objection Defeater](/codex/trinity-invented-at-nicaea-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 9.5](/codex/romans-9-5/) - [Unitarian Oneness Binitarian Objection Defeater](/codex/unitarian-oneness-binitarian-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 9.5](/codex/romans-9-5/) - [Why Doesn't God Heal Amputees Objection Defeater](/codex/why-doesnt-god-heal-amputees-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 9.20](/codex/romans-9-20/) - [Why Doesnt God Stop Satan Objection Defeater](/codex/why-doesnt-god-stop-satan-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 9.22-23](/codex/romans-9-22-23/) **Concepts:** - [Arminianism](/codex/arminianism/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/), [Romans 9.11-13](/codex/romans-9-11-13/), [Romans 9.18](/codex/romans-9-18/) - [Atheism](/codex/atheism/), via [Romans 9.20](/codex/romans-9-20/) - [Black Hebrew Israelite Doctrine](/codex/black-hebrew-israelite-doctrine/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/) - [Calvinism](/codex/calvinism/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/), [Romans 9.1-29](/codex/romans-9-1-29/), [Romans 9.11-13](/codex/romans-9-11-13/), [Romans 9.15-16](/codex/romans-9-15-16/), [Romans 9.18](/codex/romans-9-18/) - [Calvinism vs Arminianism vs Molinism vs Open Theism](/codex/calvinism-vs-arminianism-vs-molinism-vs-open-theism/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/), [Romans 9.1-29](/codex/romans-9-1-29/), [Romans 9.11-13](/codex/romans-9-11-13/), [Romans 9.15-16](/codex/romans-9-15-16/), [Romans 9.18](/codex/romans-9-18/) - [Canons of Dort](/codex/canons-of-dort/), via [Romans 9.11](/codex/romans-9-11/), [Romans 9.11-13](/codex/romans-9-11-13/), [Romans 9.13](/codex/romans-9-13/), [Romans 9.15-16](/codex/romans-9-15-16/), [Romans 9.16](/codex/romans-9-16/), [Romans 9.18](/codex/romans-9-18/), [Romans 9.22-23](/codex/romans-9-22-23/) - [Christ is God](/codex/christ-is-god/), via [Romans 9.5](/codex/romans-9-5/) - [Christ Was Made (Misread Proof-Texts)](/codex/christ-was-made-misread-proof-texts/), via [Romans 9.5](/codex/romans-9-5/) - [Christianity](/codex/christianity/), via [Romans 9.5](/codex/romans-9-5/) - [Christology](/codex/christology/), via [Romans 9.5](/codex/romans-9-5/) - [Christs Deity](/codex/christs-deity/), via [Romans 9.5](/codex/romans-9-5/) - [Compatibilism](/codex/compatibilism/), via [Romans 9.18](/codex/romans-9-18/) - [Conditional Immortality](/codex/conditional-immortality/), via [Romans 9.22](/codex/romans-9-22/) - [Conscience](/codex/conscience/), via [Romans 9.1](/codex/romans-9-1/) - [Divine Sovereignty](/codex/divine-sovereignty/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/) - [Federal Headship](/codex/federal-headship/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/) - [Foreknowledge vs Causation](/codex/foreknowledge-vs-causation/), via [Romans 9.16](/codex/romans-9-16/) - [Free Will and Determinism](/codex/free-will-and-determinism/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/), [Romans 9.1-29](/codex/romans-9-1-29/) - [Hard Determinism](/codex/hard-determinism/), via [Romans 9.16](/codex/romans-9-16/) - [Hardening Pharaohs Heart](/codex/hardening-pharaohs-heart/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/), [Romans 9.1-29](/codex/romans-9-1-29/), [Romans 9.14-15](/codex/romans-9-14-15/), [Romans 9.14-24](/codex/romans-9-14-24/), [Romans 9.17-18](/codex/romans-9-17-18/), [Romans 9.18](/codex/romans-9-18/) - [Hypostatic Union](/codex/hypostatic-union/), via [Romans 9.5](/codex/romans-9-5/) - [Israel and the Church](/codex/israel-and-the-church/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/), [Romans 9.1-3](/codex/romans-9-1-3/), [Romans 9.1-5](/codex/romans-9-1-5/), [Romans 9.30](/codex/romans-9-30/), [Romans 9.6-13](/codex/romans-9-6-13/) - [Judaism](/codex/judaism/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/) - [Lesson 2.4, Christology in One Lesson](/codex/lesson-2-4-christology-in-one-lesson/), via [Romans 9.5](/codex/romans-9-5/) - [Mary's Lineage](/codex/marys-lineage/), via [Romans 9.3](/codex/romans-9-3/) - [Mission Geography (Acts 1-8)](/codex/mission-geography-acts-1-8/), via [Romans 9.25-26](/codex/romans-9-25-26/) - [Molinism](/codex/molinism/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/) - [Monergism](/codex/monergism/), via [Romans 9.1-29](/codex/romans-9-1-29/), [Romans 9.16](/codex/romans-9-16/), [Romans 9.19](/codex/romans-9-19/), [Romans 9.20-23](/codex/romans-9-20-23/) - [New Covenant](/codex/new-covenant/), via [Romans 9.24](/codex/romans-9-24/), [Romans 9.24-26](/codex/romans-9-24-26/) - [Predestination](/codex/predestination/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/), [Romans 9.1-29](/codex/romans-9-1-29/), [Romans 9.11](/codex/romans-9-11/), [Romans 9.11-13](/codex/romans-9-11-13/), [Romans 9.15-16](/codex/romans-9-15-16/), [Romans 9.18](/codex/romans-9-18/), [Romans 9.22-23](/codex/romans-9-22-23/) - [Prophet](/codex/prophet/), via [Romans 9.2](/codex/romans-9-2/) - [Romans Road](/codex/romans-road/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/) - [Sodom and Gomorrah Objection](/codex/sodom-and-gomorrah-objection/), via [Romans 9.29](/codex/romans-9-29/) - [Trinity Common Objections](/codex/trinity-common-objections/), via [Romans 9.5](/codex/romans-9-5/) - [Trinity Invented at Nicaea Objection](/codex/trinity-invented-at-nicaea-objection/), via [Romans 9.5](/codex/romans-9-5/) - [Vatican II](/codex/vatican-ii/), via [Romans 9.4](/codex/romans-9-4/) - [Why Doesn't God Heal Amputees Objection](/codex/why-doesnt-god-heal-amputees-objection/), via [Romans 9.20](/codex/romans-9-20/) - [Zeitgeist - Constructed Religion Claims](/codex/zeitgeist-constructed-religion-claims/), via [Romans 9.5](/codex/romans-9-5/) **People:** - [Hebrew Israelites](/codex/hebrew-israelites/), via [Romans 9.5](/codex/romans-9-5/) - [Jesus](/codex/jesus/), via [Romans 9.1-29](/codex/romans-9-1-29/) - [John Piper](/codex/john-piper/), via [Romans 9.1-23](/codex/romans-9-1-23/) - [Paul the Apostle](/codex/paul-the-apostle/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/), [Romans 9.1-29](/codex/romans-9-1-29/) **Lexicon:** - [G0025 - agapao](/codex/g0025-agapao/), via [Romans 9.1-29](/codex/romans-9-1-29/) - [G0165 - aion](/codex/g0165-aion/), via [Romans 9.5](/codex/romans-9-5/) - [G0225 - aletheia](/codex/g0225-aletheia/), via [Romans 9.1](/codex/romans-9-1/) - [G0331 - anathema](/codex/g0331-anathema/), via [Romans 9.13](/codex/romans-9-13/), [Romans 9.3](/codex/romans-9-3/) - [G1242 - diatheke](/codex/g1242-diatheke/), via [Romans 9.4](/codex/romans-9-4/) - [G1343 - dikaiosyne](/codex/g1343-dikaiosyne/), via [Romans 9.30-32](/codex/romans-9-30-32/) - [G1656 - eleos](/codex/g1656-eleos/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/), [Romans 9.15-16](/codex/romans-9-15-16/), [Romans 9.15-23](/codex/romans-9-15-23/), [Romans 9.18](/codex/romans-9-18/), [Romans 9.23](/codex/romans-9-23/) - [G2198 - zao](/codex/g2198-zao/), via [Romans 9.26](/codex/romans-9-26/) - [G2316 - theos](/codex/g2316-theos/), via [Romans 9.5](/codex/romans-9-5/) - [G3049 - logizomai](/codex/g3049-logizomai/), via [Romans 9.8](/codex/romans-9-8/) - [G3056 - logos](/codex/g3056-logos/), via [Romans 9.6](/codex/romans-9-6/) - [G4893 - syneidesis](/codex/g4893-syneidesis/), via [Romans 9.1](/codex/romans-9-1/) - [H2617 - hesed](/codex/h2617-hesed/), via [Romans 9.11](/codex/romans-9-11/), [Romans 9.23](/codex/romans-9-23/), [Romans 9.23-24](/codex/romans-9-23-24/) - [H2763 - charam](/codex/h2763-charam/), via [Romans 9.3](/codex/romans-9-3/) - [H2764 - cherem](/codex/h2764-cherem/), via [Romans 9.3](/codex/romans-9-3/) - [H6635 - tzevaot](/codex/h6635-tzevaot/), via [Romans 9.29](/codex/romans-9-29/) - [H7592 - shaal](/codex/h7592-shaal/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/) - [H8085 - shama](/codex/h8085-shama/), via [Romans 9](/codex/romans-9/) ## Notes _Your annotations._ ## Why these four translations ris3n chose ASV, WEB, KJV, and YLT for two reasons together. They are the **most literal English translations available** (formal-equivalence: word-for-word renderings that preserve the Hebrew and Greek grammar rather than smoothing it into modern dynamic-equivalence idiom). And they are in the **public domain in the United States**, which means fair-use quotation at any length requires no publisher license. Modern licensed translations (NASB95, ESV, NIV) restrict volume of quotation under their copyright terms, so they are not used at stub-level coverage here. NASB95 appears only on hand-curated rich passage hubs under Lockman Foundation's fair-use allowance. The four: - **[ASV](/codex/asv/)** (American Standard Version, 1901). The basis of the modern critical-text English tradition. - **[WEB](/codex/web/)** (World English Bible, contemporary). Public-domain revision in the ASV line, in current English. - **[KJV](/codex/kjv/)** (King James Version, 1611). Reformation-era, Textus Receptus base. - **[YLT](/codex/ylt/)** (Young's Literal Translation, Robert Young, 1862). Hyper-literal preservation of Hebrew and Greek grammar; useful for word-study work even where English reads stiff. See [Bibles](/codex/bibles/) for the full per-translation history, translators, textual basis, strengths, and weaknesses.