# Romans 1.19-21

<!-- type: passage | created: 2026-06-01 | updated: 2026-06-01 -->

**Book:** [Romans](/codex/romans/) · NASB95

## Immediate context (±2 verses)

**ASV** ([ASV](/codex/asv/))
> 17. For therein is revealed a righteousness of God from faith unto faith: as it is written, But the righteous shall live by faith. 18. For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men, who hinder the truth in unrighteousness;
>
> **19. because that which is known of God is manifest in them; for God manifested it unto them. 20. For the invisible things of him since the creation of the world are clearly seen, being perceived through the things that are made, even his everlasting power and divinity; that they may be without excuse: 21. because that, knowing God, they glorified him not as God, neither gave thanks; but became vain in their reasonings, and their senseless heart was darkened.**
>
> 22. Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools, 23. and changed the glory of the incorruptible God for the likeness of an image of corruptible man, and of birds, and four-footed beasts, and creeping things. (Romans 1:17-23, ASV)

**WEB** ([WEB](/codex/web/))
> 17. For in it is revealed God’s righteousness from faith to faith. As it is written, “But the righteous shall live by faith.” 18. For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men, who suppress the truth in unrighteousness,
>
> **19. because that which is known of God is revealed in them, for God revealed it to them. 20. For the invisible things of him since the creation of the world are clearly seen, being perceived through the things that are made, even his everlasting power and divinity; that they may be without excuse. 21. Because, knowing God, they didn’t glorify him as God, neither gave thanks, but became vain in their reasoning, and their senseless heart was darkened.**
>
> 22. Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools, 23. and traded the glory of the incorruptible God for the likeness of an image of corruptible man, and of birds, and four-footed animals, and creeping things. (Romans 1:17-23, WEB)

**KJV** ([KJV](/codex/kjv/))
> 17. For therein is the righteousness of God revealed from faith to faith: as it is written, The just shall live by faith. 18. For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men, who hold the truth in unrighteousness;
>
> **19. Because that which may be known of God is manifest in them; for God hath shewed it unto them. <sup>in them: or, to them</sup> 20. For the invisible things of him from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even his eternal power and Godhead; so that they are without excuse: <sup>so: or, that they may be</sup> 21. Because that, when they knew God, they glorified him not as God, neither were thankful; but became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened.**
>
> 22. Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools, 23. And changed the glory of the uncorruptible God into an image made like to corruptible man, and to birds, and fourfooted beasts, and creeping things. (Romans 1:17-23, KJV)

**YLT** ([YLT](/codex/ylt/))
> 17. For the righteousness of God in it is revealed from faith to faith, according as it hath been written, 'And the righteous one by faith shall live,' 18. for revealed is the wrath of God from heaven upon all impiety and unrighteousness of men, holding down the truth in unrighteousness.
>
> **19. Because that which is known of God is manifest among them, for God did manifest [it] to them, 20. for the invisible things of Him from the creation of the world, by the things made being understood, are plainly seen, both His eternal power and Godhead, to their being inexcusable; 21. because, having known God they did not glorify [Him] as God, nor gave thanks, but were made vain in their reasonings, and their unintelligent heart was darkened,**
>
> 22. professing to be wise, they were made fools, 23. and changed the glory of the incorruptible God into the likeness of an image of corruptible man, and of fowls, and of quadrupeds, and of reptiles. (Romans 1:17-23, YLT)

## Setting

- **Speaker:** _TBD_
- **Audience:** _TBD_
- **Location:** _TBD_
- **Time period:** _TBD_

## Theological reading

_Patristic / early-church-father exegesis, to be added._

## Key words

_Theologically-loaded Greek or Hebrew words in this verse may have entries in the lexicon. Curated to roughly 100 contested terms across the corpus, not every word; see Lexicon Roadmap._

- _TBD_
- _TBD_
- _TBD_
- _TBD_

<!-- BACKLINKS:START -->
## Quoted in

**Arguments and defeaters:**

- [100 Questions for Evolutionists](/codex/100-questions-for-evolutionists/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Anthropology Defeats Christianity Objection Defeater](/codex/anthropology-defeats-christianity-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Anthropology vs Epistemology Priority Objection Defeater](/codex/anthropology-vs-epistemology-priority-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Aquinas Five Ways](/codex/aquinas-five-ways/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Argument from Awe and Wonder](/codex/argument-from-awe-and-wonder/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Argument from Conscience](/codex/argument-from-conscience/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Argument from Intelligibility](/codex/argument-from-intelligibility/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Argument from Physics (Guillen)](/codex/argument-from-physics-guillen/), via [Romans 1.19-20](/codex/romans-1-19-20/)
- [Argument from Reason](/codex/argument-from-reason/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Argument from Religious Experience](/codex/argument-from-religious-experience/), via [Romans 1.19-20](/codex/romans-1-19-20/)
- [Argument from Science as Faith-Based (Guillen)](/codex/argument-from-science-as-faith-based-guillen/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.18-23](/codex/romans-1-18-23/)
- [Argument from the Addressee of Gratitude](/codex/argument-from-the-addressee-of-gratitude/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.21](/codex/romans-1-21/)
- [Argument from the Beauty-Mathematics Convergence](/codex/argument-from-the-beauty-mathematics-convergence/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Argument from the Continuance of Being](/codex/argument-from-the-continuance-of-being/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Argument from the Demand to Be Witnessed](/codex/argument-from-the-demand-to-be-witnessed/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Argument from the Genetic Code](/codex/argument-from-the-genetic-code/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Argument from the Observer-Demand Convergence](/codex/argument-from-the-observer-demand-convergence/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Argument from the Reliability of Reason](/codex/argument-from-the-reliability-of-reason/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Argument from the Universal Worship Convergence](/codex/argument-from-the-universal-worship-convergence/), via [Romans 1.18-25](/codex/romans-1-18-25/), [Romans 1.21](/codex/romans-1-21/)
- [Atheism as Religion](/codex/is-atheism-a-religion/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.18-25](/codex/romans-1-18-25/), [Romans 1.21-25](/codex/romans-1-21-25/)
- [Atheism is a Belief](/codex/argument-from-science-as-faith-based-guillen/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.18-22](/codex/romans-1-18-22/), [Romans 1.19-20](/codex/romans-1-19-20/)
- [Atheism Moral Neutrality Failure](/codex/atheism-moral-neutrality-failure/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Atheism Promotes Hatred Lies and Self-Idolatry](/codex/atheism-promotes-hatred-lies-and-self-idolatry/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.18-32](/codex/romans-1-18-32/)
- [Atheism Targets the Vulnerable (Recruitment-Dynamic Defeater)](/codex/atheism-targets-the-vulnerable-recruitment-dynamic-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.18-22](/codex/romans-1-18-22/), [Romans 1.21](/codex/romans-1-21/)
- [Bayesian Argument for Theism](/codex/bayesian-argument-for-theism/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Belief-Choice Objection Defeater](/codex/belief-choice-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Bible Scientific Errors Objection Defeater](/codex/bible-scientific-errors-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Biblical Sexual Ethics Objection Defeater](/codex/biblical-sexual-ethics-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-32](/codex/romans-1-18-32/)
- [Build the Cosmological Argument](/codex/build-the-cosmological-argument/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Cambrian Explosion Argument](/codex/cambrian-explosion-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Cartesian Skeptical Argument and Christian Responses](/codex/cartesian-skeptical-argument-and-christian-responses/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Chirality Argument](/codex/chirality-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Common Design vs Common Descent Argument](/codex/common-design-vs-common-descent-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Convergent Evolution as Design Signal Argument](/codex/convergent-evolution-as-design-signal-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Cosmic Dictator Objection Defeater](/codex/cosmic-dictator-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.18-25](/codex/romans-1-18-25/)
- [Define the God You Deny (Debate Traps)](/codex/define-the-god-you-deny-debate-traps/), via [Romans 1.19-20](/codex/romans-1-19-20/)
- [Divine Hiddenness Objection Defeater](/codex/divine-hiddenness-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.18-23](/codex/romans-1-18-23/), [Romans 1.19-20](/codex/romans-1-19-20/)
- [Edge of Evolution Argument](/codex/edge-of-evolution-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Epistemology Defeats Christianity Objection Defeater](/codex/epistemology-defeats-christianity-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Evolution and Empathy Ground Morality (Defeater)](/codex/evolution-and-empathy-ground-morality-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Faith is Belief Without Evidence Objection Defeater](/codex/faith-is-belief-without-evidence-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Fifth Way - Teleology](/codex/fifth-way-teleology/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Fine-Tuning Argument](/codex/fine-tuning-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [First Way - Motion](/codex/first-way-motion/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Fitness Beats Truth Argument](/codex/fitness-beats-truth-argument/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Hand of God Argument](/codex/hand-of-god-argument/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Hofweber Internalist Deflationism Objection Defeater](/codex/hofweber-internalist-deflationism-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Inference to the Best Explanation in Bio Origins Argument](/codex/inference-to-the-best-explanation-in-bio-origins-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Information Argument](/codex/information-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Intersubjective Morality Defeater](/codex/intersubjective-morality-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Irreducible Complexity Argument](/codex/interdependency-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Kantian Critique of Natural Theology Defeater](/codex/kantian-critique-of-natural-theology-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.19-20](/codex/romans-1-19-20/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Methodological Naturalism Critique](/codex/methodological-naturalism-critique/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Molecular Machines Argument](/codex/molecular-machines-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Moral Anti-Realism Defeater](/codex/moral-anti-realism-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Moral Argument](/codex/moral-arguments/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [OT vs NT God Objection Defeater](/codex/ot-vs-nt-god-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-32](/codex/romans-1-18-32/)
- [Performative Self-Refutation of Atheist Denial](/codex/performative-self-refutation-of-atheist-denial/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.19-20](/codex/romans-1-19-20/), [Romans 1.21-22](/codex/romans-1-21-22/)
- [Phylogenetic Incongruence Argument](/codex/phylogenetic-incongruence-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Protein Sequence Space Argument](/codex/protein-sequence-space-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Signature in the Cell Argument](/codex/signature-in-the-cell-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Specified Complexity Argument](/codex/specified-complexity-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Stealing from God Argument](/codex/stealing-from-god-argument/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Subjective Morality Defeater](/codex/subjective-morality-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Transcendental Argument for God](/codex/transcendental-argument-for-god/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Universal Probability Bound](/codex/universal-probability-bound/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Vestigial Organs and Anatomy Objection Defeater](/codex/vestigial-organs-and-anatomy-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Why Doesnt God Stop Satan Objection Defeater](/codex/why-doesnt-god-stop-satan-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)

**Concepts:**

- [A Quick-Glance Guide to Aquinas Five Ways](/codex/a-quick-glance-guide-to-aquinas-five-ways/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Abiogenesis Under the Microscope](/codex/abiogenesis-under-the-microscope/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Agnosticism](/codex/agnosticism/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Animism](/codex/animism/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Apologetics](/codex/apologetics/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Atheism](/codex/atheism/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.18-32](/codex/romans-1-18-32/), [Romans 1.19-20](/codex/romans-1-19-20/)
- [Belief-Choice Objection](/codex/belief-choice-objection/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Biblical Sexual Ethics Objection](/codex/biblical-sexual-ethics-objection/), via [Romans 1.18-32](/codex/romans-1-18-32/)
- [Christianity](/codex/christianity/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Cognitive Science of Religion](/codex/cognitive-science-of-religion/)
- [Confirmation Bias](/codex/confirmation-bias/), via [Romans 1.18-23](/codex/romans-1-18-23/)
- [Diagnostic Doorways](/codex/diagnostic-doorways/)
- [Divine Hiddenness](/codex/divine-hiddenness/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.18-23](/codex/romans-1-18-23/), [Romans 1.19-20](/codex/romans-1-19-20/)
- [Evangelism](/codex/evangelism/)
- [Faith and Reason](/codex/faith-and-reason/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Faith is Belief Without Evidence Objection](/codex/faith-is-belief-without-evidence-objection/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [General Revelation](/codex/romans-1-19-20/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [God is Impossible Paradox Cluster](/codex/god-is-impossible-paradox-cluster/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Hearing God](/codex/hearing-god/), via [Romans 1.19-20](/codex/romans-1-19-20/)
- [Hell and Eternal Punishment](/codex/hell-and-eternal-punishment/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Information Argument for Design](/codex/information-argument-for-design/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Irreducible Complexity](/codex/irreducible-complexity/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Is Atheism a Religion](/codex/is-atheism-a-religion/), via [Romans 1.18-23](/codex/romans-1-18-23/)
- [Justified True Belief](/codex/justified-true-belief/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Lesson 3.5, The Transcendental Argument](/codex/lesson-3-5-the-transcendental-argument/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Lesson 4.2, Divine Hiddenness](/codex/lesson-4-2-divine-hiddenness/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Listening Tools](/codex/listening-tools/)
- [Mathematical Intelligibility of Nature](/codex/mathematical-intelligibility-of-nature/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Meaning-Centered Evangelism](/codex/meaning-centered-evangelism/), via [Romans 1.21-22](/codex/romans-1-21-22/)
- [Methodological Naturalism](/codex/naturalism/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Moral Arguments](/codex/moral-arguments/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Morality](/codex/morality/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Multiverse](/codex/multiverse/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Natural Theology](/codex/natural-theology/), via [Romans 1.19-20](/codex/romans-1-19-20/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Origins and Cosmology](/codex/origins-and-cosmology/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [OT vs NT God Objection](/codex/ot-vs-nt-god-objection/), via [Romans 1.18-32](/codex/romans-1-18-32/)
- [Polytheism](/codex/polytheism/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Presuppositionalism](/codex/presuppositionalism/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.19-20](/codex/romans-1-19-20/)
- [Psychology of Lowered Defenses](/codex/psychology-of-lowered-defenses/), via [Romans 1.21](/codex/romans-1-21/)
- [Quick Objection Responses](/codex/quick-objection-responses/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/), [Romans 1.20-21](/codex/romans-1-20-21/)
- [Reformed Epistemology](/codex/reformed-epistemology/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Salvation Exclusivity](/codex/salvation-exclusivity/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Salvation of the Unevangelized](/codex/salvation-of-the-unevangelized/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.18-32](/codex/romans-1-18-32/), [Romans 1.19-20](/codex/romans-1-19-20/)
- [Sensus Divinitatis](/codex/sensus-divinitatis/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Soul and Spirit, Origin and Awareness](/codex/soul-and-spirit-origin-and-awareness/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Spiritual But Not Religious](/codex/spiritual-but-not-religious/), via [Romans 1.19-20](/codex/romans-1-19-20/)
- [Suppression of God Thesis](/codex/suppression-of-god-thesis/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Teleological Arguments](/codex/teleological-arguments/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Theist Arguments](/codex/theist-arguments/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)

**People:**

- [David Hume](/codex/david-hume/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Greg Bahnsen](/codex/greg-bahnsen/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Jesus](/codex/jesus/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Justin Barrett](/codex/justin-barrett/)
- [Paul the Apostle](/codex/paul-the-apostle/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Sye Ten Bruggencate](/codex/sye-ten-bruggencate/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)

**Lexicon:**

- [G2305 - theiotes](/codex/g2305-theiotes/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.18-23](/codex/romans-1-18-23/), [Romans 1.18-32](/codex/romans-1-18-32/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [G2320 - theotes](/codex/g2320-theotes/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [G2588 - kardia](/codex/g2588-kardia/), via [Romans 1.21](/codex/romans-1-21/)
- [G2722 - katecho](/codex/g2722-katecho/), via [Romans 1.18-19](/codex/romans-1-18-19/), [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [G2889 - kosmos](/codex/g2889-kosmos/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [G2937 - ktisis](/codex/g2937-ktisis/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [G5218 - hypakoe](/codex/g5218-hypakoe/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [G627 - apologia](/codex/g627-apologia/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [H3045 - yada](/codex/h3045-yada/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)

**Guides:**

- [02 Faith and Worldview](/codex/02-faith-and-worldview/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [03 Arguments for God](/codex/03-arguments-for-god/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [04 Defeating Objections](/codex/04-defeating-objections/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)

<!-- BACKLINKS:END -->
---

_Scripture quotations taken from the **New American Standard Bible®** (NASB), Copyright © 1960, 1971, 1977, 1995 by **The Lockman Foundation**. Used by permission. All rights reserved. [www.lockman.org](https://www.lockman.org)_

## Why these four translations

ris3n chose ASV, WEB, KJV, and YLT for two reasons together. They are the **most literal English translations available** (formal-equivalence: word-for-word renderings that preserve the Hebrew and Greek grammar rather than smoothing it into modern dynamic-equivalence idiom). And they are in the **public domain in the United States**, which means fair-use quotation at any length requires no publisher license. Modern licensed translations (NASB95, ESV, NIV) restrict volume of quotation under their copyright terms, so they are not used at stub-level coverage here. NASB95 appears only on hand-curated rich passage hubs under Lockman Foundation's fair-use allowance.

The four:

- **[ASV](/codex/asv/)** (American Standard Version, 1901). The basis of the modern critical-text English tradition.
- **[WEB](/codex/web/)** (World English Bible, contemporary). Public-domain revision in the ASV line, in current English.
- **[KJV](/codex/kjv/)** (King James Version, 1611). Reformation-era, Textus Receptus base.
- **[YLT](/codex/ylt/)** (Young's Literal Translation, Robert Young, 1862). Hyper-literal preservation of Hebrew and Greek grammar; useful for word-study work even where English reads stiff.

See [Bibles](/codex/bibles/) for the full per-translation history, translators, textual basis, strengths, and weaknesses.