# Romans 1.19-20

<!-- type: passage | created: 2026-05-06 | updated: 2026-06-01 -->

> because that which is known about God is evident within them; for God made it evident to them. For since the creation of the world His invisible attributes, His eternal power and divine nature, have been clearly seen, being understood through what has been made, so that they are without excuse. (Romans 1:19-20, NASB95)

Romans 1:19-20 is the locus classicus of biblical natural theology.
Paul claims that knowledge of God's existence, power, and divine
nature is universally available through the created order, that
this knowledge is in fact *given* (not merely accessible) to every
human being, and that this universal availability grounds the
universal culpability of human sin. The verse pair anchors the
entire Pauline argument from Rom 1:18 through Rom 3:20 that "all
have sinned and fall short of the glory of God", without general
revelation as its premise, the universal-guilt verdict would
collapse.

## Immediate context (±2 verses)

**ASV** ([ASV](/codex/asv/))
> 17. For therein is revealed a righteousness of God from faith unto faith: as it is written, But the righteous shall live by faith. 18. For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men, who hinder the truth in unrighteousness;
>
> **19. because that which is known of God is manifest in them; for God manifested it unto them. 20. For the invisible things of him since the creation of the world are clearly seen, being perceived through the things that are made, even his everlasting power and divinity; that they may be without excuse:**
>
> 21. because that, knowing God, they glorified him not as God, neither gave thanks; but became vain in their reasonings, and their senseless heart was darkened. 22. Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools, (Romans 1:17-22, ASV)

**WEB** ([WEB](/codex/web/))
> 17. For in it is revealed God’s righteousness from faith to faith. As it is written, “But the righteous shall live by faith.” 18. For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men, who suppress the truth in unrighteousness,
>
> **19. because that which is known of God is revealed in them, for God revealed it to them. 20. For the invisible things of him since the creation of the world are clearly seen, being perceived through the things that are made, even his everlasting power and divinity; that they may be without excuse.**
>
> 21. Because, knowing God, they didn’t glorify him as God, neither gave thanks, but became vain in their reasoning, and their senseless heart was darkened. 22. Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools, (Romans 1:17-22, WEB)

**KJV** ([KJV](/codex/kjv/))
> 17. For therein is the righteousness of God revealed from faith to faith: as it is written, The just shall live by faith. 18. For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men, who hold the truth in unrighteousness;
>
> **19. Because that which may be known of God is manifest in them; for God hath shewed it unto them. <sup>in them: or, to them</sup> 20. For the invisible things of him from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even his eternal power and Godhead; so that they are without excuse: <sup>so: or, that they may be</sup>**
>
> 21. Because that, when they knew God, they glorified him not as God, neither were thankful; but became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened. 22. Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools, (Romans 1:17-22, KJV)

**YLT** ([YLT](/codex/ylt/))
> 17. For the righteousness of God in it is revealed from faith to faith, according as it hath been written, 'And the righteous one by faith shall live,' 18. for revealed is the wrath of God from heaven upon all impiety and unrighteousness of men, holding down the truth in unrighteousness.
>
> **19. Because that which is known of God is manifest among them, for God did manifest [it] to them, 20. for the invisible things of Him from the creation of the world, by the things made being understood, are plainly seen, both His eternal power and Godhead, to their being inexcusable;**
>
> 21. because, having known God they did not glorify [Him] as God, nor gave thanks, but were made vain in their reasonings, and their unintelligent heart was darkened, 22. professing to be wise, they were made fools, (Romans 1:17-22, YLT)

## Setting

- **Speaker:** Paul the Apostle ([Paul the Apostle](/codex/paul-the-apostle/))
- **Audience:** Christian believers in Rome (Jew + Gentile)
- **Location:** composed in Corinth; addressed to Rome
- **Time period:** composed c. AD 57
- **Letter context:** Rom 1:18-32 is the opening movement of the universal-guilt argument that runs through 3:20. Paul addresses Gentile sin first (1:18-32), then Jewish sin (2:1-3:8), then concludes all are guilty (3:9-20).

## Theological reading

**General revelation defined.** Paul distinguishes two channels of
divine self-disclosure: *special* revelation (Scripture, prophets,
Christ) and *general* revelation (creation, conscience, providence).
Romans 1:19-20 is the canonical proof-text for general revelation.
What is knowable about God *from creation alone* includes God's
"eternal power" (sustaining causality behind everything) and
"divine nature" (*theiotēs*, the godhood-quality that distinguishes
deity from creaturehood). This is not full saving knowledge, that
requires special revelation in Christ, but it is enough to render
unbelief inexcusable.

**Invisible attributes clearly seen.** Paul's paradox is deliberate:
the *invisible* attributes are *clearly seen* through what is made.
The created order functions as a window through which the
Creator's character is visible. The verb *kathoratai* ("are clearly
seen") is in the present passive, the seeing is ongoing and is
done *to* the human, not actively by the human. Creation does the
work; humans cannot avoid the seeing. This is the textual
groundwork for what Calvin called the *sensus divinitatis* and what
Alvin Plantinga later developed in *Warranted Christian Belief* as
a properly basic disposition to form belief in God upon
encountering certain features of the world. See
*sensus divinitatis*.

**"Without excuse" (*anapologētous*).** The Greek is the source of
the English word "apologetic" inverted, humans are *without
defense*. The function of general revelation in Paul's argument is
forensic: it underwrites God's case at the universal judgment by
ensuring no one can plead ignorance. This is why
[Presuppositionalism](/codex/presuppositionalism/) (Van Til, Bahnsen, Frame) reads Romans 1
as foundational: every human knows God, and unbelief is therefore
not honest doubt but moral suppression of known truth (cf. v. 18,
"who suppress the truth in unrighteousness").

**Two main schools of natural theology.** Romans 1:19-20 funds two
different apologetic strategies:

1. **Classical / evidentialist natural theology** (Aquinas's Five
 Ways, Paley, modern Kalam, fine-tuning, design arguments). The
 verse is read as licensing the inference *from* creation *to*
 God by ordinary reasoning. The cosmological, teleological, and
 moral arguments operationalize this. See
 [Kalam Cosmological Argument](/codex/kalam-cosmological-argument/), [Fine-Tuning Argument](/codex/fine-tuning-argument/),
 design argument.
2. **Presuppositional / transcendental** (Van Til, Bahnsen,
 Plantinga's Reformed epistemology). The verse is read as
 teaching that God-knowledge is direct and unavoidable, not the
 conclusion of an inference. Unbelief is therefore active
 suppression, and apologetics' job is to expose the suppression,
 not to construct fresh arguments. See [Presuppositionalism](/codex/presuppositionalism/),
 [Transcendental Argument for God](/codex/transcendental-argument-for-god/).

Both schools cite this passage; the difference is whether the
"clearly seen" is inferential or immediate. Most contemporary
apologists treat the two as complementary rather than rival
strategies.

**The Guillen connection.** Michael Guillen, the Harvard-trained
physicist and former ABC News science editor, builds his
*Believing Is Seeing* argument explicitly from Romans 1:19-20:
the laws of physics, the mathematical describability of the
universe, the fine-tuning constants, and the existence of
information-bearing structure are precisely the kinds of "invisible
attributes clearly seen through what has been made" Paul names.
See [Argument from Physics (Guillen)](/codex/argument-from-physics-guillen/), [Michael Guillen](/codex/michael-guillen/).

**The suppression mechanism (v. 18, 21).** Paul does not stop at
the availability of revelation. He goes on (v. 21-32) to describe
how humans *suppress* the truth: knowing God, they refuse to
glorify or thank him; their reasoning becomes futile; their hearts
darken; they invent idols; they descend into moral chaos. The
modern atheist's claim that "there's no evidence" is, on Paul's
account, not honest reportage but the suppression mechanism in
operation. The unbeliever already knows; the unbelief is a
performance maintained against the knowing. See
[Agnostic Retreat Defeater](/codex/agnostic-retreat-defeater/).

## Key words

- [G2305 - theiotes](/codex/g2305-theiotes/), *theiotēs*, "divine nature, godhead"; what is knowable about God from creation.
- [G2316 - theos](/codex/g2316-theos/), *theos*, "God"; the object of revealed knowledge.
- [G2937 - ktisis](/codex/g2937-ktisis/), *ktisis*, "creation"; the medium of general revelation.
- [G2889 - kosmos](/codex/g2889-kosmos/), *kosmos*, "world"; the ordered cosmos where God's power is visible.
- *anapologetos*, *anapologētos*, "without excuse, without defense"; the forensic verdict.

## Theological themes

- **General revelation.** Universal availability of basic God-knowledge through creation. See [Natural Theology](/codex/natural-theology/), general revelation.
- **Sensus divinitatis.** Calvin's term for the innate God-sense. See *sensus divinitatis*.
- **Suppression of truth.** Atheism as performance, not honest doubt. Paired with Rom 1:18, 21-32.
- **Universal culpability.** Why "no one is without excuse" grounds the judgment of Rom 2-3.
- **Apologetic methodology.** Classical evidentialism vs presuppositionalism, both rooted here.

## Cross-references

- [Romans 1](/codex/romans-1/), the surrounding chapter framing the whole universal-guilt argument.
- [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), the existing rich passage hub treating the wrath / suppression frame.
- [Acts 14.15-17](/codex/acts-14-15-17/), Paul at Lystra: God left "witness" to himself through rains and seasons.
- [Acts 17.27](/codex/acts-17-27/), Paul at the Areopagus: God placed humans so they might seek and find him.
- [Psalms 19.1-4](/codex/psalms-19-1-4/), "the heavens declare the glory of God"; the OT background.
- Psalm 19, full psalm of general + special revelation paired.
- Job 38-41, God's speech from the whirlwind; creation as theophany.
- Wisdom of Solomon 13:1-9, Hellenistic-Jewish background to Paul's argument; humans who could not see the Creator from creation are foolish.

## See also

- [Natural Theology](/codex/natural-theology/), the doctrinal hub.
- general revelation, the technical-theology page.
- *sensus divinitatis*, Calvin / Plantinga concept.
- [Presuppositionalism](/codex/presuppositionalism/), the apologetic method that reads this passage strongly.
- [Kalam Cosmological Argument](/codex/kalam-cosmological-argument/), one operationalization of natural theology.
- [Fine-Tuning Argument](/codex/fine-tuning-argument/), another.
- design argument, classical inference from order to designer.
- [Argument from Physics (Guillen)](/codex/argument-from-physics-guillen/), Guillen's modern reading.
- [Michael Guillen](/codex/michael-guillen/), the apologist/scientist most associated with this verse cluster.
- [Agnostic Retreat Defeater](/codex/agnostic-retreat-defeater/), uses this passage against "no evidence" claims.
- [Paul the Apostle](/codex/paul-the-apostle/), author.
- [Romans](/codex/romans/), book hub.

<!-- BACKLINKS:START -->
## Quoted in

**Arguments and defeaters:**

- [100 Questions for Evolutionists](/codex/100-questions-for-evolutionists/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Anthropology Defeats Christianity Objection Defeater](/codex/anthropology-defeats-christianity-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Anthropology vs Epistemology Priority Objection Defeater](/codex/anthropology-vs-epistemology-priority-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Aquinas Five Ways](/codex/aquinas-five-ways/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Argument from Awe and Wonder](/codex/argument-from-awe-and-wonder/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Argument from Conscience](/codex/argument-from-conscience/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Argument from Intelligibility](/codex/argument-from-intelligibility/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Argument from Physics (Guillen)](/codex/argument-from-physics-guillen/)
- [Argument from Reason](/codex/argument-from-reason/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Argument from Religious Experience](/codex/argument-from-religious-experience/)
- [Argument from Science as Faith-Based (Guillen)](/codex/argument-from-science-as-faith-based-guillen/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.18-23](/codex/romans-1-18-23/)
- [Argument from the Addressee of Gratitude](/codex/argument-from-the-addressee-of-gratitude/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Argument from the Beauty-Mathematics Convergence](/codex/argument-from-the-beauty-mathematics-convergence/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Argument from the Continuance of Being](/codex/argument-from-the-continuance-of-being/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Argument from the Demand to Be Witnessed](/codex/argument-from-the-demand-to-be-witnessed/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Argument from the Genetic Code](/codex/argument-from-the-genetic-code/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Argument from the Observer-Demand Convergence](/codex/argument-from-the-observer-demand-convergence/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Argument from the Reliability of Reason](/codex/argument-from-the-reliability-of-reason/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Argument from the Universal Worship Convergence](/codex/argument-from-the-universal-worship-convergence/), via [Romans 1.18-25](/codex/romans-1-18-25/)
- [Atheism as Religion](/codex/is-atheism-a-religion/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.18-25](/codex/romans-1-18-25/)
- [Atheism is a Belief](/codex/argument-from-science-as-faith-based-guillen/)
- [Atheism Moral Neutrality Failure](/codex/atheism-moral-neutrality-failure/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Atheism Promotes Hatred Lies and Self-Idolatry](/codex/atheism-promotes-hatred-lies-and-self-idolatry/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.18-32](/codex/romans-1-18-32/)
- [Atheism Targets the Vulnerable (Recruitment-Dynamic Defeater)](/codex/atheism-targets-the-vulnerable-recruitment-dynamic-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.18-22](/codex/romans-1-18-22/)
- [Bayesian Argument for Theism](/codex/bayesian-argument-for-theism/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Belief-Choice Objection Defeater](/codex/belief-choice-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Bible Scientific Errors Objection Defeater](/codex/bible-scientific-errors-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Biblical Sexual Ethics Objection Defeater](/codex/biblical-sexual-ethics-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-32](/codex/romans-1-18-32/)
- [Build the Cosmological Argument](/codex/build-the-cosmological-argument/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Cambrian Explosion Argument](/codex/cambrian-explosion-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Cartesian Skeptical Argument and Christian Responses](/codex/cartesian-skeptical-argument-and-christian-responses/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Chirality Argument](/codex/chirality-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Common Design vs Common Descent Argument](/codex/common-design-vs-common-descent-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Convergent Evolution as Design Signal Argument](/codex/convergent-evolution-as-design-signal-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Cosmic Dictator Objection Defeater](/codex/cosmic-dictator-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.18-25](/codex/romans-1-18-25/)
- [Define the God You Deny (Debate Traps)](/codex/define-the-god-you-deny-debate-traps/)
- [Divine Hiddenness Objection Defeater](/codex/divine-hiddenness-objection-defeater/)
- [Edge of Evolution Argument](/codex/edge-of-evolution-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Epistemology Defeats Christianity Objection Defeater](/codex/epistemology-defeats-christianity-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Evolution and Empathy Ground Morality (Defeater)](/codex/evolution-and-empathy-ground-morality-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Faith is Belief Without Evidence Objection Defeater](/codex/faith-is-belief-without-evidence-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Fifth Way - Teleology](/codex/fifth-way-teleology/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Fine-Tuning Argument](/codex/fine-tuning-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [First Way - Motion](/codex/first-way-motion/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Fitness Beats Truth Argument](/codex/fitness-beats-truth-argument/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Hand of God Argument](/codex/hand-of-god-argument/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Hofweber Internalist Deflationism Objection Defeater](/codex/hofweber-internalist-deflationism-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Inference to the Best Explanation in Bio Origins Argument](/codex/inference-to-the-best-explanation-in-bio-origins-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Information Argument](/codex/information-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Intersubjective Morality Defeater](/codex/intersubjective-morality-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Irreducible Complexity Argument](/codex/interdependency-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Kantian Critique of Natural Theology Defeater](/codex/kantian-critique-of-natural-theology-defeater/)
- [Methodological Naturalism Critique](/codex/methodological-naturalism-critique/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Molecular Machines Argument](/codex/molecular-machines-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Moral Anti-Realism Defeater](/codex/moral-anti-realism-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Moral Argument](/codex/moral-arguments/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [OT vs NT God Objection Defeater](/codex/ot-vs-nt-god-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-32](/codex/romans-1-18-32/)
- [Performative Self-Refutation of Atheist Denial](/codex/performative-self-refutation-of-atheist-denial/)
- [Phylogenetic Incongruence Argument](/codex/phylogenetic-incongruence-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Protein Sequence Space Argument](/codex/protein-sequence-space-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Signature in the Cell Argument](/codex/signature-in-the-cell-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Specified Complexity Argument](/codex/specified-complexity-argument/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Stealing from God Argument](/codex/stealing-from-god-argument/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Subjective Morality Defeater](/codex/subjective-morality-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Transcendental Argument for God](/codex/transcendental-argument-for-god/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Universal Probability Bound](/codex/universal-probability-bound/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Vestigial Organs and Anatomy Objection Defeater](/codex/vestigial-organs-and-anatomy-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Why Doesnt God Stop Satan Objection Defeater](/codex/why-doesnt-god-stop-satan-objection-defeater/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)

**Concepts:**

- [A Quick-Glance Guide to Aquinas Five Ways](/codex/a-quick-glance-guide-to-aquinas-five-ways/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Abiogenesis Under the Microscope](/codex/abiogenesis-under-the-microscope/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Agnosticism](/codex/agnosticism/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Animism](/codex/animism/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Apologetics](/codex/apologetics/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Atheism](/codex/atheism/)
- [Belief-Choice Objection](/codex/belief-choice-objection/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Biblical Sexual Ethics Objection](/codex/biblical-sexual-ethics-objection/), via [Romans 1.18-32](/codex/romans-1-18-32/)
- [Christianity](/codex/christianity/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Cognitive Science of Religion](/codex/cognitive-science-of-religion/)
- [Confirmation Bias](/codex/confirmation-bias/), via [Romans 1.18-23](/codex/romans-1-18-23/)
- [Diagnostic Doorways](/codex/diagnostic-doorways/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.19-21](/codex/romans-1-19-21/)
- [Divine Hiddenness](/codex/divine-hiddenness/)
- [Evangelism](/codex/evangelism/), via [Romans 1.19-21](/codex/romans-1-19-21/)
- [Faith and Reason](/codex/faith-and-reason/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Faith is Belief Without Evidence Objection](/codex/faith-is-belief-without-evidence-objection/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [General Revelation](/codex/romans-1-19-20/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [God is Impossible Paradox Cluster](/codex/god-is-impossible-paradox-cluster/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Hearing God](/codex/hearing-god/)
- [Hell and Eternal Punishment](/codex/hell-and-eternal-punishment/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Information Argument for Design](/codex/information-argument-for-design/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Irreducible Complexity](/codex/irreducible-complexity/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Is Atheism a Religion](/codex/is-atheism-a-religion/), via [Romans 1.18-23](/codex/romans-1-18-23/)
- [Justified True Belief](/codex/justified-true-belief/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Lesson 3.5, The Transcendental Argument](/codex/lesson-3-5-the-transcendental-argument/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Lesson 4.2, Divine Hiddenness](/codex/lesson-4-2-divine-hiddenness/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Listening Tools](/codex/listening-tools/), via [Romans 1.19-21](/codex/romans-1-19-21/)
- [Mathematical Intelligibility of Nature](/codex/mathematical-intelligibility-of-nature/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [Methodological Naturalism](/codex/naturalism/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Moral Arguments](/codex/moral-arguments/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Morality](/codex/morality/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Multiverse](/codex/multiverse/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Natural Theology](/codex/natural-theology/)
- [Origins and Cosmology](/codex/origins-and-cosmology/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [OT vs NT God Objection](/codex/ot-vs-nt-god-objection/), via [Romans 1.18-32](/codex/romans-1-18-32/)
- [Polytheism](/codex/polytheism/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Presuppositionalism](/codex/presuppositionalism/)
- [Quick Objection Responses](/codex/quick-objection-responses/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/), [Romans 1.20-21](/codex/romans-1-20-21/)
- [Reformed Epistemology](/codex/reformed-epistemology/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Salvation Exclusivity](/codex/salvation-exclusivity/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Salvation of the Unevangelized](/codex/salvation-of-the-unevangelized/)
- [Sensus Divinitatis](/codex/sensus-divinitatis/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Soul and Spirit, Origin and Awareness](/codex/soul-and-spirit-origin-and-awareness/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Spiritual But Not Religious](/codex/spiritual-but-not-religious/)
- [Suppression of God Thesis](/codex/suppression-of-god-thesis/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Teleological Arguments](/codex/teleological-arguments/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Theist Arguments](/codex/theist-arguments/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)

**People:**

- [David Hume](/codex/david-hume/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Greg Bahnsen](/codex/greg-bahnsen/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Jesus](/codex/jesus/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Justin Barrett](/codex/justin-barrett/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.19-21](/codex/romans-1-19-21/)
- [Paul the Apostle](/codex/paul-the-apostle/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [Sye Ten Bruggencate](/codex/sye-ten-bruggencate/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)

**Lexicon:**

- [G2305 - theiotes](/codex/g2305-theiotes/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/), [Romans 1.18-23](/codex/romans-1-18-23/), [Romans 1.18-32](/codex/romans-1-18-32/), [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [G2320 - theotes](/codex/g2320-theotes/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [G2722 - katecho](/codex/g2722-katecho/), via [Romans 1.18-19](/codex/romans-1-18-19/), [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [G2889 - kosmos](/codex/g2889-kosmos/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [G2937 - ktisis](/codex/g2937-ktisis/), via [Romans 1.20](/codex/romans-1-20/)
- [G5218 - hypakoe](/codex/g5218-hypakoe/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [G627 - apologia](/codex/g627-apologia/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [H3045 - yada](/codex/h3045-yada/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)

**Guides:**

- [02 Faith and Worldview](/codex/02-faith-and-worldview/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [03 Arguments for God](/codex/03-arguments-for-god/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)
- [04 Defeating Objections](/codex/04-defeating-objections/), via [Romans 1.18-21](/codex/romans-1-18-21/)

**Passages:**

- [Psalms 19.1](/codex/psalms-19-1/)

<!-- BACKLINKS:END -->
## Why these four translations

ris3n chose ASV, WEB, KJV, and YLT for two reasons together. They are the **most literal English translations available** (formal-equivalence: word-for-word renderings that preserve the Hebrew and Greek grammar rather than smoothing it into modern dynamic-equivalence idiom). And they are in the **public domain in the United States**, which means fair-use quotation at any length requires no publisher license. Modern licensed translations (NASB95, ESV, NIV) restrict volume of quotation under their copyright terms, so they are not used at stub-level coverage here. NASB95 appears only on hand-curated rich passage hubs under Lockman Foundation's fair-use allowance.

The four:

- **[ASV](/codex/asv/)** (American Standard Version, 1901). The basis of the modern critical-text English tradition.
- **[WEB](/codex/web/)** (World English Bible, contemporary). Public-domain revision in the ASV line, in current English.
- **[KJV](/codex/kjv/)** (King James Version, 1611). Reformation-era, Textus Receptus base.
- **[YLT](/codex/ylt/)** (Young's Literal Translation, Robert Young, 1862). Hyper-literal preservation of Hebrew and Greek grammar; useful for word-study work even where English reads stiff.

See [Bibles](/codex/bibles/) for the full per-translation history, translators, textual basis, strengths, and weaknesses.

---

_Scripture quotations taken from the **New American Standard Bible®** (NASB), Copyright © 1960, 1971, 1977, 1995 by **The Lockman Foundation**. Used by permission. All rights reserved. [www.lockman.org](https://www.lockman.org)_